Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology

Neurophysiology is the physiology of the nervous system and it is the primary tools of basic neurophysiological research which include electrophysiological recordings, such as extracellular single-unit recording local field potentials, patch clamp and recording of voltage clamp , as well as some of the methods of optogenetics, molecular biology, and  calcium imaging. It features a broad interdisciplinary scope on systematic, cellular, and molecular neurophysiology, neurochemistry and functional neuromorphology.

Cognitive neuroscience is one of the scientific fields that are concerned with the study of the biological processes and to study how brain enables the mind. Cognitive neuroscience includes two domains that known modes of neuronal processing and it maps higher-level cognitive functions to known brain architectures. It also explores how individual neurons operate and communicate to form complex neuronal architectures that comprise the human brain.

Neuropathology is the branch of medicine concerned with diseases of the nervous system and it is the study of central and peripheral nervous tissue in adults and children. The primary concern is the diagnosis of brain tumours, and neuropathologists are often able to give a preliminary diagnosis to the neurosurgeon while the patient is still on the operating table. It involves interpretation of molecular tests and special stains and will guide other members of the multidisciplinary team when deciding upon treatment strategies. Neuropathologists look at muscle to diagnose inherited and acquired muscle diseases, alongside peripheral nerve samples and occasionally ophthalmic specimens and they are also responsible for post-mortem brain analysis.

Neurocardiology refers to the pathophysiological interplays of the cardiovascular and nervous systems. It is the study of neurological, neurophysiological and neuroanatomical aspects of cardiology including the neurological origins of cardiac disorders. The neurocardiac axis links the cardiovascular and nervous systems to physiological problems such as: stroke, epilepsy and arrhythmias. Clinical issues in Neurocardiology include neurogenic stress cardiomyopathy, cardiovascular findings in patients with primary neurological disease, neurologic sequelae of cardiac and thoracic surgery and cardiac interventions and hypoxic-ischemic brain injury.

Neurogenetics is the study of role of genetics in the function and development of the nervous system that it will draw all the aspects from both the studies of neuroscience and genetics mainly focusing on genetic codes i.e., traits, Mutations where in this genetic sequence can have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. 

Vascular Dementia is caused by an impaired supply of blood to the brain which may be caused by a series of small strokes. This condition causes changes in thinking skills, memory, speech or balance these conditions can get worse over time or it can happen suddenly or begin mildly. It is also known as vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) and multi infract dementia (MID).

Autonomic Neurology focuses on presentation of clinical cases and clinical scenarios. The anatomical and biochemical mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system control of autonomic function, a clinical and laboratory approach to the diagnosis of autonomic disorders, and principles of autonomic pharmacology. It focuses on the pathophysiology and management of disorders of sweating, neurogenic bladder, gastrointestinal dysmotility, and autonomic hyperactivity. Mainly it is devoted to specific autonomic disorders, including common peripheral neuropathies and central neurodegenerative disorders with prominent autonomic failure, painful small fibre neuropathies, focal brain disorders, focal spinal cord disorders, and chronic pain disorders with autonomic manifestations.

Computational Neurology is a branch of neuroscience which employs abstractions, theoretical analysis and mathematical models of the brain to understand the principles that govern the cognitive abilities, development, physiology and structure of the nervous system. Topics including representation of information by spiking neurons, algorithms for adaptation and learning and processing of information in neural networks are studied, Computational Neurology is also known as theoretical neuroscience or mathematical neuroscience.

The study of relationship between brain health and behaviour in children is referred as Neuropediatrics which is a sub-speciality within the field of clinical neuropsychology. The complex medical process aims to aid recovery from a nervous system injury is known as Neurorehabilitation.

Neurosurgery is concerned with the rehabilitation of disorders, diagnosis and surgical treatment which may affect any portion of the nervous system. The neurosurgery is required to treat the underlying cause of back pain as opposed to conservative treatments by discectomy or laminectomy. Neural circuits are population of neurons which are interconnected by synapses and will carry out specific functions when they are activated. 

Placebo Effect is a beneficial effect produced by a treatment or placebo drug. Emerging research n the field of neuroscience evidence implicates on neurochemical mediators and multiple brain systems including dopamine and opioids. The empirical review of the brain systems that are involved in placebo effects are presented, that focuses on a conceptual framework and placebo analgesia and linking these findings to the mind–brain processes that mediate them. 

The neuroscience of religion or Neurotheology is also known as spiritual neuroscience refers to the multidisciplinary field of scholarship to understand the relationship between the religion and human brain. The evolutionary basis for subjective experiences traditionally categorized as spiritual or religious The field has tried to explain religious experience and behavior in neuroscientific terms.

Stem cell is an undifferentiated cell which has the capacity to give rise to a new cell and also to indefinitely more cells of the same type from which certain other kinds of cell arise by differentiation. It is showed by researchers that these cells are capable in the treatment of Neurological Disorders such as Alzheimer disease, Battens disease, Parkinson and many other neurological disorders and they can also be used for treatment of Spinal cord injury.

Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. The term neurotoxicity implies the involvement of a neurotoxin; however, the term neurotoxic may be used more loosely to describe states that are known to cause physical brain damage, but where no specific neurotoxin has been identified.

Neuromarketing is a new and a different method of marketing where they use medical technologies such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to study the responses in brain to analyse for marketing stimuli. To measure or to analyse changes in activity of the brain and parts of brain and to learn why consumers make the decisions researchers use the fMRI and they also check what part of the brain is telling them to do.

In recent decades the understanding of neurological diseases by physicians tend to approach disease and diagnose as if they were immutable. More than about 600 neurological diseases are found which occur due to injuries to spinal cord or brain or because of faulty gene. The practice of neurology is moving forward because of the importance of case reports special case issues, semiology, pathophysiology and present cases that provide glimpses into diagnosis